Subtleties and Allusions

1) The purpose, benefit, and method of remembrance (tadhakkur) in the Qur’an

The principle of remembrance (tadhakkur) encompasses numerous points that the Noble Qur’an recounts in many instances throughout its verses. Sometimes remembrance is in terms of the human being’s “lost” perfection and strength, and its benefit is to inspire the human being to regain their forgotten glory. And sometimes it is in terms of the deficiencies and weaknesses the human being has already remedied, where the goal of remembrance is to maintain and safeguard the blessing that has been attained.

The method the Qur’an employs for remembrance is sometimes by presenting the principle of a historical event and important incident that occurred at a specific juncture. And sometimes it is by discussing the peripheral and contextual aspects of that important event. In this regard, sometimes the place of the incident is mentioned, and sometimes the time of the event is remembered. Mentioning the time of the incident, inasmuch as it is something that everyone experiences and that it recurs year after year, is more powerful than mentioning its place, as the latter is something not experienced by everyone, and for those not present in that particular place, the event does not have the same quality of memorability. By contrast, time, in terms of its general extensiveness (insofar as everyone experiences it), is capable of being remembered by the totality of people.

The Noble Qur’an presents instances of remembering the time of important events, such as: “And mention [udhkur, remember] in the Book, Mary, when she withdrew from her family to an eastern place” (19:16), “And remember Our servant Job, when he called to his Lord, ‘Indeed, Satan has touched me with hardship’” (38:41), “And remember the brother of ʿĀd, when he warned his people in the Aḥqāf” (46:21), “And remember when He made you successors after the people of Noah” (7:69), “And remember when you were few and He multiplied you” (7:86) and “And remember when you were few and oppressed in the land” (8:26). A brief examination of the content of these verses yields the same insights that we have presented above.

What needs to be considered in this regard is that sometimes an existential occurrence is located neither localized nor temporalized, such that there can be any mention of its place or time. Rather, it has a supernal (malakūtī) existence. Therefore, in such cases, the word “idh” (when) denotes an existential context (ẓarf wujūdī), not a temporal or spatial context. The message of the word “idh” in reminders such as what is mentioned in the course of God’s conversation with the angels, as well as what is presented in God taking a covenant from the progeny of Ādam, and other atemporal supernal events, is to draw attention to the existential level and degree of being of that occurrence, which can be remembered by everyone (like remembering the time of an event) while simultaneously being specific to each and every individual (like remembering its place). That is, it is not limited like a physical place that can only be remembered by those who exist in its vicinity, nor is it like worldly time, which can only be remembered generally insofar as it is something everyone experiences. Rather, while preserving its specific relevance to each individual person, its existential breadth means that it serves as a reminder for all people as well.

2) Lessons from the account of God’s dialogue with the angels

What is the wisdom behind God informing the angels about the creation of Ādam and his vicegerency, and then narrating the entire question and answer for the noble Messenger and his nation in the noble Qur’an? What necessity was there for God to inform the angels about the creation of Ādam and appointing him as vicegerent, such that they would ask such a question? What message does this announcement convey? This question has been raised by some exegetes, who have proposed the following answers:

First: God wanted to teach humans and angels that someone’s superiority and greatness should not prevent consulting with those lesser than them.(105)

Second: To make them understand that abundant good should not be sacrificed for minor evil.(106)

Third: Through this, He declares that He does not dislike being asked about the secrets of creation and that He approves of it.(107)

Fourth: When some of the secrets and wisdom of God are hidden from the angels, then it is more appropriate for them to be hidden from the ordinary and conventional human being. Therefore, one should not expect to uncover all the secrets and wisdom of creation, for mankind have not been given of knowledge except a little.(108)

Fifth: Expressing humility and submission before God takes precedence over understanding His wisdom; because when God initially responded to the angels, He said in summary: “I know what you do not know,” which necessitates the humbling of the questioner. Then, by presenting the incident of teaching the names, He graciously provided a detailed answer to the question.

Sixth: It is a consolation and comfort for the noble Messenger (s.a.w.) in the face of the disputations of the polytheists and the quarrels of the deniers; because when the celestial beings and inhabitants of the highest realm question God and seek proof and evidence from Him, then the terrestrial beings and inhabitants of the dust are more likely to do so. It is upon the prophets to stand firm against them and establish proof for them.(109) Rather, this story teaches every religious scholar and devoted preacher to face people’s questions and objections with forbearance, patience, and open-mindedness, and to strive to prove and explain religious claims by providing explanations and establishing proofs to the extent possible.

Seventh: (110)This story teaches the community of humanity that no matter what level of knowledge, power, purity of heart, good intentions, and benevolence one possesses in making decisions and taking actions, one should not shy away from disputes and criticisms. Rather, one should leave the door open for dialogue and the opportunity for objection, and welcome it with open arms. Just as the Holy Essence of God gave the angels the opportunity for dialogue and questions that resembled objections, in such a way that they, despite being aware of God’s greatness and wisdom, were not overawed by Him and raised their question without being intimidated by His awe-inspiring presence. And God, with special care and kindness, and with perfection, tolerance, and the presentation of evident and reasonable proof, convinced them. It is interesting that God left the door open for objection and dialogue even for the Devil, where he said to God the Glorious: “You created me from fire and created him from clay...” (38:76).

So those who consider themselves above criticism and objection should come to their senses, take a lesson from this incident, and know that with this self-conceit and arrogance, they have unwittingly considered themselves superior to the Almighty God. They should listen to the master of eloquence, Imām Ali (a.s.), who said: “Do not speak to me as you speak to the oppressive rulers, and do not behave in my presence as you do in the presence of tyrannical rulers, and do not deal with me in a hypocritical manner. Never think that I will be slow to accept the truth that you have presented to me (or that I will be upset by it), and do not think that I seek to aggrandize myself; for the one who finds it difficult to listen to the truth or to be presented with justice, acting upon it is even more difficult for him.

On this basis, do not refrain from speaking the truth or giving just counsel; for I (personally, as a human being) do not consider myself above making mistakes in some matters, and I am not immune from it in my actions, unless God protects me.”(111) Of course, God always protects the perfect human beings, especially the infallible and divinely appointed leaders, from the harm of forgetfulness and oversight; just as they are also immune from the affliction of disobedience.

Note:

a) Although deriving the process of consultation from the story of Ādam is not easy, if the purpose of this dialogue and discussion is to present the concept of consultation and the principle of seeking counsel (as some signs of expressing opinions and exchanging views are evident in it), this story shows that such a virtue is embedded in the essence of human creation. This is because if a matter is fully considered during the emergence, development, and growth of a phenomenon, it becomes clear that the perfection of that being depends on examining the process which led to its creation. In other words, just as the teaching of names was mentioned at the beginning of Ādam’s creation, and the teaching of the Qur’an was considered to be part of the essence of human identity: “The Most Gracious, Taught the Qur’an, Created man, Taught him eloquence” (55:1-4) if someone removes themselves from the axis of knowledge, they have abandoned their human life, and the teachings of the prophets are not a burden on human existence, but rather a means to awaken them to the treasures of their intellects. Similarly, the process of consultation does not burden man, but rather the command “and consult them in the matter” (3:159) and the description of the faithful as those whose “affairs are conducted by mutual consultation” (42:38) are all like promoting and nurturing something that has been incorporated into the innermost structure of man. A person who avoids consultation falls into the trap of obstinacy and will perish: “Whoever is opinionated perishes.”(112)

The purpose is that the human being, aware of how they came into existence and that their identity was formed through the teaching of names and through consultation, in order to preserve their authentic identity, will not forget all the matters considered in it, such as learning the divine names on the one hand, and teaching or informing others of it according to the different levels of its learners on the other hand, as well as the principle of consultation on the third hand, and will consider them as the means of growth of their inner self and nature, not as a duty and imposition beyond their inner desires.

b) Some exegetes (mufassirūn) hold the view that wherever the phrase “idh qāla” (when He said) is used in the Qur’an, it means: “listen, so that I may tell you”, and the report of the creation of Ādam before his creation was neither for the purpose of seeking help nor for consultation, but rather in the form of glad tidings to the angels about the appearance of the teacher of names and the explainer of realities, so that they may be aware and prepared for the realization of that promise.(113)

The practice of giving glad tidings and the habit of preparing the ground in this manner is found throughout the Noble Qur’an, as God, the Exalted, informed the previous prophets about the coming of the Seal of the Prophets and took a covenant from them: “And when God took a covenant from the prophets, [saying], ‘Whatever I give you of the Scripture and wisdom...’” (3:81). And He commanded Jesus Christ (a.s.), while informing him of the appearance of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.), to give glad tidings of the coming of that Eminence: “I am the messenger of God to you confirming what came before me of the Torah and bringing good tidings of a messenger to come after me, whose name is Aḥmad.” (61:6). And He described the companions of prophethood and the bearers of the divine messengership of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.) before their coming, in the Torah and the Gospel: “That is their description in the Torah. And their description in the Gospel...” (48:29).

What the angels presented after receiving this glad tiding was of the kind of conflicting opinions of advisers, not of the type of announcing the readiness of assistants; because the divine announcement was superior to consultation, more important than assistance, and better than seeking help. Rather, their expression was of the kind of announcing readiness for servitude and obedience; meaning, if You seek a servant, we are servants, and if You want obedience, we are obedient; as can be inferred from the verse: “And indeed we are those who line up [for prayer]. And indeed we are those who exalt [God]” (37:165-166). God, the Glorious, said to the angels: If you are aware of the corruption of the limbs of some of the children of Ādam, you are unaware of the righteousness of the hearts of their saints, of the suitability of the abundant light of wilāya in their hearts, and of the ability to carry the charter of leadership of societies, spread the traces of Lordship, and explain, justify, implement, support, and defend it.(114)

Answer: The question of the angels, apart from the aspect of interrogation, may have the tone of idlāl (a boldness and courage that arises from trust and assurance in love); because a close servant sometimes shares matters with their Master as a form of idlāl.(115)

3) Levels of vicegerency (khilāfa)

As discussed in the exegetical topics, what is meant by vicegerency is the comprehensive reality that encompasses many levels, although the specific instance mentioned in the verse under discussion possesses absolute and complete vicegerency, which is the share of the perfect human being (al-insān al-kāmil). This is because the essence of vicegerency has levels, and each human being is a vicegerent of God to the extent of their knowledge of the divine names, through which they gain superiority over other beings. What can be inferred from the verse “O Dāwūd, indeed We have made you a vicegerent on the earth” (38:26) is no more than the vicegerency of Prophet Dāwūd (a.s.) in the aspect of judging with truth on the earth. That is, the difference between this verse and the verse under discussion is that absolute vicegerency cannot be derived from this verse,(116) whereas the context of the verse under discussion testifies that what is meant by vicegerency in it is absolute vicegerency. This is because it introduces the source of human vicegerency as their knowledge of the unseen of the heavens and the earth, and this indicates that the scope of their vicegerency encompasses all the unseen and the seen, because one who knows the unseen, by greater reason, also knows the seen. The result is that from the lowest material beings to the highest immaterial beings, all are under the coverage of their wilāya (guardianship) and vicegerency. What occurred in the splitting of the sea by the hand of Prophet Mūsā (a.s.), the fire becoming a garden for the Prophet Ibrāhīm (a.s.), the wind being subjugated for Prophet Sulaymān (a.s.), and the splitting of the moon by the gesture of the Messenger of God (s.a.w.), are all merely effects of the dominance of the walī (guardian) of God over the world of mulk (the physical realm).

In any case, divine vicegerency has multiple levels; because God has different manifestations, and what is discussed in the verse in question is the vicegerency of the complete and perfect vicegerent who performs the work of God the Exalted by His permission in all affairs of the world of possibility. That is, just as God the Exalted is inherently All-Knowing and All-Powerful, the perfect human being is also the complete manifestation of that All-Knowing and All-Powerful, and knows with divine knowledge, is capable with divine power, and has divine character. The realm of the world of creation is for him like the realm of the body for every human being, such that whatever he wills, he can do it by God’s permission. Such a perfect human being is the vicegerent of God both in essence (in the terminology of the sages) and essential attributes, and in active attributes and concrete effects. His essence and attributes are the vicegerent of God’s essence and attributes, and his actions and effects are the vicegerent of God’s actions and effects.

That is, in all four aspects, he is the manifestation of God without possessing anything of his own. No one among the existents, not even the angels, has such a station; rather, it is specific to the perfect human being. If each of the existents, at whatever level of existence they are, are the vicegerent of God within the scope of the attributes of beauty and majesty that they have and to the extent of their existential capacity—that is, they are the manifestation of one of the divine names, whether partial or total.

The divine vicegerency, which is subject to gradation, can be evaluated from various aspects. What is being addressed now is the expression of its different levels in terms of the quality of the connection of the perfective attributes with the spirit of the human vicegerent of God; because the levels of God’s vicegerency depend on examining the stages of the connection of the divine attributes with the spirit characterized by it.

If someone possesses the attributes of God’s perfection to some extent, they will have His vicegerency (khilāfa). However, the details of its degrees are as follows:

a) If the establishment of the attributes of perfection for someone is at the level of a state (ḥāl), meaning that these attributes are not fixed in them but can and will come and go with ease, then such a person’s vicegerency from God the Glorified is at the level of a state, not beyond that.

b) If they reach a stage where the attributes of perfection for them are at the level of a trait (malaka), meaning that although these attributes are not yet permanent, they will not come and go with ease, then such a person’s vicegerency from God is at the level of a trait, not beyond that.

c) If they attain a degree where the attributes of perfection for them are at the level of their essential constitution (taqwīm māhawī), meaning they constitute their essence and form one of the essential parts of it, as long as that essence exists, it will never cease. Such a person’s vicegerency from God the Glorified is at the level of their essential constitution, not beyond that.

d) If they reach the pinnacle of perfection in such a way that the attributes of perfection for them are at the level of existential constitution (taqwīm wujūdī), not essential, and in the manner of identity (ʿayniyyat), not partiality (juzʾiyyat)—meaning the aforementioned perfections are identical to their individuated identity, not essence, and not in the manner of an additional quality; because existence is fundamental and simple, and free from any composition and division, and if a perfection is established for it, it is definitely in the manner of identity, not as an additional quality—then the divine vicegerency of such a perfect human will be identical to their existential identity, and the very idea of their losing this perfection is tantamount to them losing their own identity—a logical contradiction, because negating a thing from itself is the same as combining two contradictories. The vicegerency of such a perfect human is superior to the vicegerency of all other vicegerents.

This is because the vicegerency, like other divine perfections such as knowledge, power, wisdom..., is identical to His identity, not merely to His essence, let alone being in the state of a condition or faculty.

Such a perfect human being, in negating attributes additional to the essence, is the vicegerent of God and His greatest sign; meaning, just as God possesses the Most Beautiful Names and unlimited essential supreme attributes, and all those perfective attributes are identical to His essence and have no distinction from the divine sacred essence except conceptually, His vicegerent is also the manifestation of those same Most Beautiful Names and the sign of those same aforementioned supreme attributes, but in a limited way, and all those limited perfective attributes are identical to his essence and have no distinction from each other and from the essence except conceptually; because such a perfect human being is the sign of God, the Glorified, in whom the ultimate sincerity in monotheistic knowledge is the negation of what is additional to the essence: “The perfection of sincerity for Him is the negation of attributes from Him.”(117) For the same well-known sermon of the Commander of the Faithful (a.s.), which considers the perfection of sincerity to be the negation of attributes, from beginning to end seeks to express the perfective attributes of God, but in order to express the unity, or rather the instantial identity and truthful oneness of the attributes and the one to whom they are attributed, he said: “The negation of attributes is the perfection of sincerity in monotheistic knowledge of God.”

It is necessary to note that the unity of essence and attribute and the identity of attribute and the one to whom it is attributed is neither exclusive to the Necessary Being nor impossible for the contingent being; because the criterion of distinction between the Necessary and the contingent is the very necessity and contingency of existence, one of which is absolutely needless and possesses all existential perfections in an unlimited way, while the other is utterly impoverished and lacks all of them.

If the essence of an existent is necessary, its existential perfections are necessary, their unity with each other and their truthful and instantiated unity with the essence is possible, and their essential unity with the qualified is possible; because all the mentioned attributes, as well as the flow of instantiated unity and essential unity, are subordinate to the principle of the qualified. If the qualified has a contingent existence, all its affairs are also evaluated within the scope of contingency. The terminological difference can be sought in the distinction between essential necessity, which does not contradict the contingency of existence, and eternal necessity, which is specific to the Necessary Being.

Therefore, the perfection of vicegerency is in the realm of existence; because the vicegerent, who is simple in reality, must possess a limited and relative simplicity in order to become a sign of that pure simplicity, and this is not possible except for an existent who attains the degree of simplicity in the shadow of unity and the essentiality of attributes and the qualified, so that it becomes the great sign of the simple in reality, and its perfective attributes also become the essence of its contingent essence, like the attributes of the One who is represented, so that it may be true of it in the realm of contingency that the perfection of vicegerency is the negation of attributes superadded to the essence of the vicegerent.

To attain such a vicegerency, migration from composition to simplicity is necessary, which is a more difficult journey than the journey from multiplicity to unity; for it is possible for the multiple to become one, and a wayfarer who used to view the world of existence from the perspective of multiplicity may now view it from the perspective of unity, and beyond the unity of perspective, the unity of the observer may also emerge. However, due to the lack of some of the desired perfections of the vicegerency, one may be in the confines of the composition of possession and lack, which is considered the worst form of composition; for the aspect of possessing some of the perfections is not the same as not possessing other perfections, and such a composite being that is composed of existence and non-existence is not a sign of the absolutely simple God, and as a result, his vicegerency from God, the Glorified, is not perfect.

To reach such a peak, there is no choice but to migrate from composition to simplicity, and this greater migration (hijra kubrā) is not achieved through the lesser migration (hijra ṣughrā) and the middle migration (hijra wusṭā); just as it does not emerge through the lesser struggle (jihād aṣghar) and the middle struggle (jihād awsaṭ), rather the greater struggle (jihād akbar) is necessary in order to prepare the ground for such a greater migration.

For such immense journeys, one must dispel all darkness from the path, overcome the dread of the waves, and conquer the terror of the whirlpools with the light of the special grace of the one being succeeded (mustakhlaf ʿanhu). Beyond adhering to all divine rulings and etiquettes, which serve as the provisions of the laws and methods of God’s prophets, one must prioritize the innate nature (fiṭra) of the spirit over the disposition of the body that arises from its sensory inclinations. This nature must be guided with moderation, not suspended, on the straight path of humanity.

When one reaches the valley of innate nature and is freed from the flaws and imperfections of [bodily] nature, and completes its perfecting aspect within the existential perfection of innate nature, then comes the turn of the greater jihād and the greatest migration of the intellect and the heart. In this arena, one must not sacrifice the concept-grasping intellect at the feet of captivating mystical vision. Instead, one should stimulate and develop it so that it, along with the heart, may transition from the true concept to the external essence, which is the referent. Otherwise:

Beware, if you lend an ear to the whisperings of the intellect

Ādam-like, you depart from the garden of Riḍwān(118)

The wayfarer seeking divine vicegerency refines the intellect rather than sacrificing it. Just as in essential movement, potentiality is realized and flourishes upon reaching actuality, the intellect thrives and shines when it attains pure knowledge in harmony with Qur’anic revelation, rather than perishing or being abandoned. Since Gabriel (a.s.) was an angel, and every angel has a defined station, he could not reach the level of annihilation in the perfect human or ascend from his lofty station to accompany the Muhammadan spirit to the exalted rank of “Then he drew near and descended # And was at a distance of two bow lengths or nearer” (53:8-9).

However, the intellect of the human wayfarer, which seeks knowledge and understanding, has the capacity to be absorbed into the heart of one who dives deep into the sea of witnessed gnosis. This journey transforms knowledge into essence, moving from mere understanding to a profound, intimate embrace of truth.

In the realm of the greater jihād and the greater migration, identity begins to overshadow essence, and the aspect of contingent existence becomes more prominent over the essence’s inherent potentiality. Gradually, the reality of “necessity by another” becomes more apparent, causing the notion of essence, whether understood as quiddity (the whatness of something) or as identity, to fade away. This is because the essence’s inherent potentiality is an attribute of essence itself, and when something lacks essence entirely—whether it be essence as quiddity or as identity—it cannot be characterized by potentiality. What remains is the “necessity by another,” as man, like all contingent beings, is purely relational. Furthermore, relational existence, unlike an essence, is not independently observable. Every essence can be observed, but relational existence is never observed independently, as it cannot be considered on its own. Since it cannot be observed independently, it cannot be characterized by potentiality or any other qualities associated with essence.

This is where it is stated that everything other than God embodies poverty (faqr), rather than being poor (faqīr) in the sense of having an essence to which poverty is attributed, like how evenness is attributed to the number four. If poverty were merely an attribute attached to an essence, it would imply that poverty is necessary for the essence, not the essence itself, and this necessity introduces various complexities. Since the vicegerency of such a perfect human being, like all other aspects of his perfection, is considered the very identity of his being, and his identity is essentially poverty—an existential connection to God the Glorified—his vicegerency is also essentially the connection to the One who appointed him as vicegerent.

Such a vicegerent does not invite people to himself, nor does he call anyone to anything other than God. He considers his own actions in relation to humans and the world to be directly connected to the sovereign and independent actions of God. Moreover, he views the actions of every other being as embodying the same poverty and connection to the powerful and sovereign actions of God the Glorified. From the perspective of such a perfect vicegerent, the entire world of contingent existence is nothing but a reflection of divine existence, mirroring the sovereign and powerful actions of His Presence.

In summary, firstly, the best vicegerent is simple in reality (basīṭ al-ḥaqīqa) and simple in metaphor (basīṭ al-majāz), not compound in metaphor (murakkab al-majāz). Secondly, the identity of attribute and essence has levels, the highest of which is specific to the simple in reality, meaning God the Glorified. Thirdly, some levels of the identity of essence and attribute are found in the perfect divine manifestations, meaning that the principle of identity is not exclusive to the Necessary Being, although its ultimate stage is specific to God.(119) Fourthly, what Janāb ʿAbd al-Karīm ibn Ibrāhīm Jīlānī stated, that this ruling is not found in anything other than God, is not correct, and its details were discussed in the course of the discussion.

4) Vicegerency from God in the Appointment of a Vicegerent

Complete vicegerency and comprehensive deputyship lie in the true vicegerent being a manifestation of all the Beautiful Names and Sublime Attributes of the One who appointed him, even in the name of appointment and the attribute of assigning vicegerency. By virtue of this manifestation, he can appoint a group to the witnessed presence and another to the school of attainment as his own vicegerents. These vicegerents are, in reality, the vicegerents of God through intermediaries and possess nothing of their own or from other than God except divine effects. Of course, the contingent vicegerent is not superior to the One who appointed him, but it is expected that the One who appointed him represents Himself well.

One who becomes the vicegerent of Ādam must strive not to experience the humiliation of error more than once, not to transform the joyful abode of the paradise of nearness and the lofty station of heaven into the trap of the forbidden tree more than once. They must avoid testing disobedience and forgetfulness for more than a moment, and not exchange the indication of permanence and eternity for deluded demotion and dismissal more than once. Any slip must be immediately and lastingly compensated for, just as Ādam, the true vicegerent of God, continuously repaired his momentary slip, disobedience, forgetfulness, misguidance, demotion, error, and the temptation of Iblīs with divine selection, repentance, receiving divine words, and God’s special guidance. The purity of his chosenness so overshadowed his momentary slip that no trace of it remained, for the ocean of divine selection and the torrent of God’s choosing leave no room for the emergence of the bubble of disobedience and misguidance.

In any case, the perfect human being is the comprehensive and complete vicegerent of God, even in the aspect of appointment and the attribute of assigning a vicegerent. It is evident that all these blessings manifest the beauty of the possessor of form, crystallized in the mirror of the human face.

Thus, it may be said that the noble Messenger of Islam, Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdullāh (s.a.w.), who is the first emanation or the first manifestation and the comprehensive vicegerent of God, even in the name of vicegerency, did what he did regarding the Commander of the Faithful, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.), at Ghadīr and many other occasions. He seated that exalted one in vicegerency, pinned the sign of wilāya on his expansive chest, and bound the token of leadership and imāma of the Islamic umma on his arms—the same arms that conquered the fortress of Khaybar. All of this is a manifestation of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.) and his vicegerency from the most holy divine essence, in the name of vicegerency and the attribute of appointing a vicegerent.

Therefore, one can say regarding the prophethood and messengership of the greatest vicegerent of God in the world of humanity:

“You did not appoint ʿAlī (a.s.) to the vicegerency when you appointed him, but God appointed him. And you did not say to the people on the day of Ghadīr regarding ʿAlī: ‘Whoever I am his master, this ʿAlī is his master,’ but God said it,” and likewise in other matters and instances.

5) Defining the Characteristics of God’s Vicegerent

The vicegerency of one being over another can be of two types:

Historical Vicegerency: In this type, there is no essential distinction between the vicegerent (khalīfa) and the one represented (mustakhlaf ʿanhu). This is similar to the vicegerency of the second generation over the first generation of nations and peoples who reside in specific lands. In such cases, there is no difference in status and rank between the original and the successor. Therefore, it is possible for the vicegerent to be equal to, or even superior to, the one represented. The existential degree of the second generation may be more knowledgeable, more pious, and superior to the first generation, as indicated by the verse: “We do not abrogate a verse or cause it to be forgotten except that We bring forth [one] better than it or similar to it” (2:106). Here, the vicegerent can speak and act on par with the one represented, and sometimes even surpass him, because his power arises from his own identity and is not dependent on the bestowal of the one represented.

Existential Vicegerency: This type of vicegerency is solely in terms of existential status, rank, and position, not historical or similar considerations. In this case, there is an essential distinction between the vicegerent and the one represented. The vicegerent considers all his authority and power to be due to the vicegerency itself, as the origin of his legitimacy and power is derived from the one represented. Thus, his existential and rank degree is neither superior nor equal to that of the one represented but is certainly lower. The degree of this descent is related to the degree of vicegerency and the manner of representation.

If such a vicegerent, whose existential degree is merely a thin layer of the existential degree of the one he is representing and is never his equal, claims the station of the one he is representing, he not only loses his legitimacy but also lacks power. For example, if the special or general deputy of the infallible Imām (a.s.), God forbid, claims a position beyond his limit as a member of the nation of that great and infallible Imām (a.s.), he will fall like Samiri. Similarly, if an infallible Imām (a.s.), who is the deputy of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.), God forbid, entertains the thought of something higher than Imāmate and claims prophethood, he will face the same bitter punishment that the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.), God forbid, who is the vicegerent of God, would face if he said something without God’s permission and attributed it to his Representer, who is God the Glorified, in the form of a false statement and fabrication:

“And if he had fabricated against Us some [false] sayings, We would have seized him by the right hand; then We would have cut from him the aorta, and there is no one of you who could prevent [Us] from [punishing] him” (69:44-47).

This is because the boundary of Imāmate is entirely separate from the domain of prophethood and messengership, just as the region of prophethood and messengership is entirely detached from the sanctuary of lordship and the realm of divinity.

God, the Glorified, has many beautiful names and exalted attributes, some of which are exclusive prerogatives, inaccessible to anyone but Him. The titles of Lordship (rubūbīyya) and Grandeur (kibrīyāʾ) are examples of this, as Amīr al-Muʾminīn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.) states: “Praise be to God, who has clothed Himself in Might and Grandeur and has chosen them for Himself to the exclusion of His creation, and has made them a sanctuary and a preserve forbidden to others, and has selected them for His Majesty.”(120) Therefore, one who is God’s vicegerent (khalīfa), whether directly or indirectly, must always recognize his own rank and not transgress it.

Of course, it should be noted that this recognition and steadfastness are not easy, because the Straight Path (ṣirāṭ al-mustaqīm) has two characteristics: one is the difficulty of recognition, and the other is the hardship of steadfastness. The difficulty of recognition stems from the fact that the Straight Path, from an epistemological perspective, is “finer than a hair” (adaqq min al-shaʿr), requiring a meticulous, hair-splitting approach to attain it in terms of knowledge. From a practical perspective, it is “sharper than a sword” (aḥadd min al-sayf),(121) demanding a realized, upright person to succeed in it in terms of action.

So firstly, the lofty station of vicegerency is entirely lower than the existential and hierarchical domain of the One who is represented (mustakhlaf ʿanhu). Secondly, knowledge of the distinct boundary between each of them is difficult. Thirdly, fulfilling the duty of vicegerency is arduous. And fourthly, with the special grace of the One who is represented, all these stages can be traversed.

What has been reported from the Perfect Man and the comprehensive divine vicegerent, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.), as a warning against claiming greatness and a threat against pretending to divinity, while delimiting the duty of the servant in the sacred precinct of the Master, pertains to this very point: “Beware of vying with God in His greatness and likening yourself to Him in His divinity, for indeed God abases every tyrant and humiliates every arrogant one.”(122)

Therefore, in an Islamic government, if an official in legislation, execution, or judiciary prioritizes human thought over divine revelation, they can never be God’s vicegerent. Similarly, if any individual wishes to prioritize their own motives over the divine purpose, they are never God’s vicegerent.

Note: Fighting oppression and overthrowing falsehood is not possible without the mantle of divine omnipotence. The divine vicegerents, while being “merciful among themselves,” are “severe against the disbelievers” (48:29) who do not accept advice. Just as the One who appointed them, while being “the most merciful of the merciful in the place of pardon and mercy,” is “the most severe of punishers in the place of vengeance and retribution.”(123)

6) Direct and Indirect Vicegerency

Vicegerency is the manifestation of the One who appointed the vicegerent within the vicegerent, and this manifestation varies in degree. Each knowledgeable and just human being reflects divine vicegerency to some extent, and these stages of manifestation are arranged hierarchically. The one at the pinnacle of this pyramid of manifestation is the first divine vicegerent, while others occupy the ranks that follow.

Therefore, the first manifestation, who is the primary vicegerent of God, the Glorified—meaning the perfect human being who has no equal, neither in the arc of descent nor in the arc of ascent—is the only direct vicegerent of God. However, subsequent vicegerents, while being vicegerents of God, also serve as vicegerents of His primary vicegerent. In the lower stages, there is an accumulation of vicegerency.

Some human beings are only subsequent to the vicegerency and never precede it, such as the lofty station of the Seal of the Prophets, Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdullāh (s.a.w.). Others are only preceded by the vicegerency and never follow it, such as those at the lowest degree of humanity, descending toward the station of animality, which is below the realm of vicegerency and outside the domain of true humanity. Some perfect human beings, like Ādam (a.s.), are both preceded by the vicegerency—such as that of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.)—and followed by the vicegerency of other perfect human beings who, while not equal to him in terms of the degree of manifestation, hold ranks that are lower than his.

Since the vicegerent, insofar as he is a vicegerent, is merely a reflection of the one he represents, if Ādam (a.s.) is regarded as the vicegerent of the Messenger of God (s.a.w.), this does not negate his vicegerency from God, the Glorious. This is because the identity of the Messenger is intrinsically connected to the divine vicegerency, and the vicegerent, as a vicegerent, is simply a mirror reflecting the one he represents. Therefore, the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.) is solely the manifestation of divine grace, and Ādam’s (a.s.) vicegerency through him is nothing more than the presentation of this divine manifestation.

In other words, Ādam (a.s.) is the vicegerent of the Perfect Man, who, being the first manifestation, is annihilated in God. The vicegerency of someone who is annihilated is, in essence, the vicegerency of the One in whom they are annihilated. Thus, Ādam, who serves as the vicegerent of the Messenger of God, is indeed the divine vicegerent. This divine vicegerency arises either because the vicegerent of God’s vicegerent is also God’s vicegerent, or because the vicegerent of one who is annihilated becomes the vicegerent of the One in whom they are annihilated.

If the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.) refers to Ādam as himself, it is accurate from two perspectives: First, Ādam is not the direct vicegerent of God but rather serves as God’s vicegerent through the mediation of the Noble Messenger. Second, even though Ādam is the vicegerent of God, this vicegerency, having an intermediary, is still considered as such. The Noble Messenger (s.a.w.), through the proximity achieved by supererogatory acts, speaks with the divine tongue, allowing him to refer to Ādam as his own vicegerent through the unseen tongue of God Almighty.

What has been recounted here as allusions is mentioned in the Tāʾiyya ode of Ibn al-Fāriḍ al-Miṣrī al-Ḥamawī.(124) In this work, Ibn al-Fāriḍ composes the following lines from the perspective of the Noble Messenger (s.a.w.) in relation to Ādam (a.s.):

“And when the soul was transferred from the king of his earth

By the rule of purchase from it to the king of his paradise;

And it had strived and was martyred in His way

And it succeeded with the glad tidings of its sale when it fulfilled;

It soared with me to my entirety from the eternity of His heaven

And was not content with my remaining for the earth of my vicegerent.”(125)

It refers to the verse: “Indeed, God has purchased from the believers their lives and their properties [in exchange] for that they will have Paradise. They fight in the cause of God, so they kill and are killed. [It is] a true promise [binding] upon Him in the Torah and the Gospel and the Qur’an. And who is truer to his covenant than God? So rejoice in your transaction which you have contracted. And it is that which is the great attainment” (9:111).

I have made a transaction and pledge with God, and by selling my soul to God, I have made any disposal of it contingent on the divine command. I have not made any disposal of it except as a tireless mujāhid in the lesser, middle, and greater jihād. In return for complying with the command to strive in God’s way, I was granted a reward: I ascended and gained access from the realm of the material world (mulk) to the celestial domain of the malakūt, from the pavilion of the earth to the courtyard of Paradise, and from the exit of nature to the abode of the supernatural. My soul-conquering and supernatural self will never be content to return to the land of my vicegerent, meaning the realm of nature.

The commentator of the ode explains the last verse as follows:

Ādam (a.s.) has called me (the Messenger of God, s.a.w.) his vicegerent in two ways:

One is from the perspective of the divine plural, who have addressed him with that title by the ruling: “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a vicegerent.”

The second is from the tongue of the Muhammadan reality (s.a.w.), who is the interpreter of that divine decree in all these statements. In the form of invitation and vicegerency, Ādam is the deputy and vicegerent of this reality. All the prophets and messengers are vicegerents and deputies of that reality, and the true meaning of this deputyship and vicegerency has been discussed in the preface and elsewhere.(126)

7) How Vicegerency Arises from Pure Presence

The vicegerent (khalīfa) is one who appears after the one he is succeeding (mustakhlaf ʿanhu), meaning he is positioned behind and beyond him, based on the absence and non-existence of the one being succeeded. However, God, who encompasses all things (... and He is witness over all things)(127), is never absent, and there is no scene devoid of Him such that His vicegerent would fill His place. So how is the vicegerency of man from God to be envisioned?

In response, it must be said that this problem arises only if vicegerency is understood as delegation and relinquishment of the scene. Such an understanding of vicegerency in relation to God is neither supported by reason nor inferred from revelation. What is meant by vicegerency from God is special manifestation (maẓhariyya) and unique mirroring. In other words, man’s vicegerency from God signifies that he is the manifestation of God’s attributes and the mirror of His actions; God is the original, and man is the vicegerent, the sign, and the mirror of Him.

In other words, neither the emptying of the scene of existence from God is intended, nor the relinquishing of the station of Lordship and management to man. This is because neither the absence and limitation of God can be correctly conceived, nor is the independence of man in managing affairs acceptable. A contingent and essentially needy being is inherently and independently incapable of managing his own affairs, let alone managing the affairs of others.

The vicegerent of God is the very “hand of God” (yad Allāh) that works in the form of man. In reality, it is God Himself who performs the action, and the vicegerent of God is merely the channel through which the action is issued and the site where the will of the Lord descends and manifests: “And the will of the Lord in the measures of His affairs descends to you and emerges from your homes.”(128)

Every good and virtue that is realized is from God: “Whatever good befalls you is from God” (4:79). The perfect human being, as God’s vicegerent, is only a sleeve from which God’s hand of power emerges and manifests: “You did not throw when you threw, but it was God who threw” (8:17).

In the third sense, the Absolute Encompassing has no vicegerent, and the Pure Present does not accept vicegerency. Therefore, if God, who is the Absolute Encompassing and Present, introduces someone as His vicegerent, it means that God’s hand has manifested through that person: “Indeed, those who pledge allegiance to you, [O Muḥammad]—they are actually pledging allegiance to God. The hand of God is over their hands” (48:10) and “God will punish them at your hands” (9:14). If we want to preserve the apparent meaning of vicegerency (the realization of the work of the one represented by the vicegerent), we must say that just as God is encompassing, witnessing, and capable of everything, His vicegerent also shares these attributes. The only difference is that God possesses these attributes essentially (bi-l-aṣāla) and intrinsically (bi-l-dhāt), while His vicegerent possesses them consequently (bi-l-tabaʿ) and accidentally (bi-l-ʿaraḍ). In fact, the difference between being essential and consequential, or rather intrinsic and accidental, goes back to the point that God is free from need, while His vicegerent fulfills his needs through everything.

It may be said that if the intention is that the vicegerent cannot do anything without God, such a portrayal of vicegerency is questionable; because if the vicegerent is “Be, and it is” (kun fa-yakūn),(129) he should be able to bring something into existence by his very will.

In response, it must be said that the intention is that in the world of possibility, nothing can be found that does not fall under the influence of the absolute vicegerent of God, and the work that it is capable of is not carried out in the way that the vicegerent of God desires. Thus, God is free from need of everything, and His vicegerent is free from need of everything. This is the pinnacle of the station of humanity, which does not stop at any point by accident and does not accept any limit, like Paradise, which has no end and is the sign of the endless pleasure and boundless mercy of God.(130)

8) The Difference Between Vicegerency and Prophethood

Although every prophet is a vicegerent of God and benefits from divine guardianship (wilāya), the title of prophethood and messengership, which entails the responsibility of legislation, propagation, and teaching the Book, wisdom, and purification of souls, is distinct from the title of vicegerency and guardianship, which also evokes the aspect of creation (takwīn) and possesses such a quality in its companionship.

The possibility of combining the mentioned titles in the perfect human being is clear, and each of the mentioned attributes is subject to gradation and includes levels. When evaluating, the highest level of each should be compared to the highest level of the other, so that the increase or decrease of each in relation to the other becomes known. Otherwise, any judgment on the superiority of one over the other lacks a criterion for proper evaluation.

Of course, the creative aspect has always been the foundation of the legislative aspect and has the status of being the basis and foundation in relation to it; that is, the inner reality of the sharīʿa is indeed guardianship.

Some experts in the field of anthropology, which is one of the most challenging areas of knowledge, after presenting the principles of knowing God, the world, and the human being, have proceeded to explain a fourth principle, which they place in the realm of knowing the prophet and the guardian (walī). In the course of this fourth principle, after explaining the meanings of prophet and guardian, stating the view of the common people of the sharīʿa, announcing the opinion of the elite of the sharīʿa, and quoting the words of the most special among them, as well as expressing the views of the people of unity—both common and elite—they say:

Now know that the prophet who has reached the properties of things and has gained complete knowledge of them is a knowledgeable human being, and the saint who has reached the realities of things and has gained complete knowledge of them is also a knowledgeable human being. But one who has reached both the properties and the realities of things, and has gained complete knowledge of them, is a perfect human being (insān al-kāmil). This is the one who is the world-revealing cup, the greatest compound, the heart of the world, and the vicegerent on earth. The perfect human being is of two kinds: one kind is called mature (bāligh) and the other kind is called free (ḥurr). There is no difference in knowledge between the mature and the free; the difference lies in their detachment from attachments. The mature one calls people and desires that they follow and obey him, but the free one does not call people, and his action is nothing but observing, his attribute nothing but contentment and submission.

Know that the prophet must follow the saint in the realities of things, and the saint must follow the prophet in the properties of things. Both the prophet and the saint must follow the perfect human being, for the perfect human being is the vicegerent of God, and the prophet and the saint are the vicegerents of the vicegerent of God.(131)

In analyzing the aforementioned matter, attention to a few points is necessary:

Firstly, there is no harm in coining a term if it aids in conveying a concept.

Secondly, there is no obstacle to recounting a special spiritual unveiling (kashf) and a particular mystical witnessing (shuhūd) that is valid only for the witness himself.

Thirdly, in the face of the rule of the names of God and the dominion of the divine attributes, whoever is the manifestation of a superior name or an excellent attribute is obeyed by one who is, in the same direction and in the same manifestation, the manifestation of an inferior name or a lower attribute.

Fourthly, as a result of the distribution of divine positions and the division of lordly affairs, if one person is the locus of the manifestation of a special grace of creation and another is the locus of the manifestation of a special grace of legislation, then mutual submission and reciprocal obedience between them is reasonable and acceptable.

The perfect human being, who is the manifestation of the greatest name (ism aʿẓam) and the vicegerent of God encompassing both creation and legislation, will possess the attributes of the One who appointed him as vicegerent. One who is the manifestation of a great name (ism ʿaẓīm), though not the greatest, will be the vicegerent of the vicegerent of God, but not the vicegerent without the mediation of an intermediary. This is because the station of the highest form of vicegerency will be nothing but the unmediated manifestation of the Real in the mirror of creation.

9) The Difference Between the Appointment of Vicegerency and the Presentation of Trust

Some titles inherently carry a dependency and connection to something else, such that the relationship and need for the other is embedded in their essence, like the title of vicegerency, deputyship, and the like. If someone becomes the vicegerent or deputy of another, in all their affairs they must consider the instructions of the one who appointed them and the pleasure of the one they are representing. Otherwise, the title of vicegerency will change to delegation or independence, and the title of deputyship will change to originality.

Since the vicegerent and deputy have no independence in attaining these titles, these positions themselves are also like a trust. This means that the vicegerent and deputy are not only not independent in the realm of vicegerency and deputyship, but they also lack independence in possessing these attributes and attaining these positions. They are trustees of these attributes, and these positions are established for them as a trust, not as their own property.

Some of the great scholars, reflecting on the verse about presenting the trust to the heavens, earth, and mountains: “Indeed, we offered the Trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they declined to bear it and feared it; but man [undertook to] bear it. Indeed, he was unjust and ignorant.” (33:72), have provided an interpretation that can be applied to the divine vicegerency of man. They state:

“And what trust is greater than serving as the vicegerent for the Truth among His servants, so he does not dispose of them except with the truth. Therefore, there must be a constant presence and supervision over the disposal of the heavens, earth, and mountains.”(132)

They further elaborate on the distinction between offering (ʿarḍ) and commanding (amr), explaining that in commanding, compliance is obligatory. Hence, when God commanded the heavens and the earth to come, they obeyed: “Then He said to it and to the earth, ‘Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion.’ They said, ‘We have come willingly.’” (41:11). However, in offering, acceptance is not obligatory. For this reason, the respectful and apprehensive refusal by the heavens, earth, and mountains was accepted, with no fault attributed to them,(133) unlike the arrogant refusal of Iblīs mentioned earlier.

Although a detailed discussion about the offering of the trust has its own special place and it is not appropriate to prematurely present its topics here, a brief reference to the interpretive differences between the verse under discussion and the verse of offering the trust, when considering the unity or plurality of the intent of these two, is worth noting. These differences are:

a) The verse under discussion speaks about making (jaʿl), whereas the verse of offering the trust revolves around offering (ʿarḍ). There is a distinction between making, which is an external bestowal that does not require acceptance, and offering, which is limited to a proposal contingent upon acceptance.

b) The verse of offering the trust does not mention the angels, whereas the verse under discussion dedicates an important part of its topics to the angels from various aspects.

c) In the verse of offering the trust, the process involves presenting and proposing the acceptance of the trust to the heavens, earth, and mountains, which they refuse. In contrast, the verse under discussion presents the process of the angels being exposed to the concept of vicegerency, where the angels propose accepting the vicegerency, and God refuses.

Of course, the divine refusal was wise, just as the refusal of the heavens and the earth was reverential.

d) In the verse under discussion, the central element of vicegerency is the human’s knowledge of the beautiful names of God, while in the verse about presenting the trust, there is no mention of knowledge of the divine names.

e) In the verse about vicegerency that is under discussion, the vicegerent of God is not characterized with blameworthy attributes such as oppression and ignorance. Rather, in other verses, the divine vicegerents are honored as the chosen ones: “Indeed, God chose Ādam, Noah, the family of Ibrāhīm, and the family of ’Imran over all people” (3:33). However, in the verse about presenting the trust, the bearers of the trust are described as ignorant.

f) The prominent effect of vicegerency in the verse under discussion is the teaching of the divine names and informing the angels about them as a deputyship on behalf of God the Glorified, a matter that is not raised at all in the verse about presenting the trust.

The point is that the main features of vicegerency and the central elements of divine deputyship are not clearly present in the verse about presenting the trust. Therefore, issuing a verdict on the unity of content between the two verses is not easy or straightforward.

A noteworthy point mentioned in the aforementioned exegesis, which is beneficial to consider, is an excellent observation made by the esteemed exegete. Some scholars of conventions, intellectuals of acquired sciences, and formal thinkers have considered the refusal and fear of the heavens, earth, and mountains as a state of being, rather than an actual event. They also interpreted their speech, evident from the verse “They both said, ‘We come willingly’” (41:11) as metaphorical language, not a real address. However, interpreting it as metaphorical language, not a reality, is incorrect and not the intended meaning of the Qur’anic verses. Rather, the apparent meaning of the verses is correct and intended, as perceived by the people of spiritual unveiling.(134)

Explaining that God’s true dialogue with the heavens and the earth is firstly correct in terms of His own essence, and secondly, that such a true dialogue is intended and not metaphorical, is contingent upon proving their consciousness and perception. The transcendent philosophy (ḥikmat-i mutaʿālīya) of Mullā Ṣadrā explains what the Qur’an has informed us about and what pure mysticism (ʿirfān-i nāb) finds through direct spiritual experience. The details of this are discussed in Raḥīq-i Makhtūm, and Tasnīm will be committed to explaining it in the context of the verses on the glorification (tasbīḥ), prostration (sujūd), submission (islām), praise (taḥmīd), speech (qawl), and obedience (ṭāʿa) of the heavens and the earth. It is hoped that all these aspirations will be fulfilled with divine grace.

10) The Scope of the Vicegerency of the Perfect Human Being

Considering that the referent and example of the vicegerent in the verse under discussion is the perfect human being, although the principle of vicegerency is an appointed reality encompassing various levels, and it was previously mentioned that the perfect human being is the manifestation of God, who is infinite in existence and perfections, it is concluded that the scope of the vicegerency of the perfect human being is not limited to the earth. Rather, the earth is the abode and seat of material and physical existence, and the phrase “on the earth” (fī l-arḍ) in the verse means that in the arc of ascent, the starting point of the evolutionary movement of man is the earth, not that the homeland of his vicegerency and the realm of his manifestation is the earth, and he only performs the tasks that God must perform on earth.

As previously stated, the phrase “on the earth” is a condition of appointment, not a condition of vicegerency. Especially considering that the vicegerent is the one before whom the angels of heaven prostrate, and if he were only God’s vicegerent on earth, then the angels would be God’s vicegerents in the heavens, and their prostration to the perfect human being would be meaningless. In this case, the vicegerent human being would also not have knowledge of the entire system of creation.

The station of divine vicegerency is like the Ṭūbā tree, whose root is firm and its branches are in heaven: “Its root is firm and its branches are in heaven” (14:24). Therefore, the angels of the heavens also benefit from the fruit of this tree and from the knowledge of this perfect human being, and their perfection essentially lies in benefiting from this tree and humbling themselves before it.

The vicegerent of God is the one whose intellectual and practical nourishment is provided by the teaching of the Names, and it is only his body and elemental existence that is nourished by the earth and nature, as per the verse: “We did not make them bodies not eating food” (21:8).

Therefore, when Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafiyya describes a perfect human being like Imām Ḥusayn (a.s.), he states three characteristics: “the most knowledgeable among us in knowledge, the most forbearing among us in forbearance, and the closest of us to the Messenger of God in kinship.” This means:

a) He is more knowledgeable than all of us.

b) In the virtues of practical wisdom, he is more forbearing and patient than all of us.

c) He is closer to the Messenger of God than all of us.

In addition to these, he mentions two other attributes that transcend time. First, Imām Ḥusayn was a faqīh (jurist) before he was created: “He was a faqīh before he was created.” This means he brought the divine secrets and knowledge with him and did not learn them from anyone. Rather, without attending school, with just a wink, he became the teacher of a hundred teachers.(135)

Second, before he could speak, he recited the revelation: “He recited the revelation before he could speak.” This means that before the revelation descended to the level of words and took the form of words and letters, it was already known to His Holiness. Or, before His Holiness reached the age of speech, like Jesus (a.s.), he was familiar with the revelation. Without needing school or learning through hearing and sight, he recited the revelation.(136)

In any case, the meaning of “I will appoint a vicegerent on the earth” is that the beginning of the journey of the vicegerent of God (khalīfat Allāh) in the arc of ascent starts from the earth. Otherwise, he would have gone from the earth to “and indeed to your Lord is the final return” (16:42). The vicegerent of God is both earthly and heavenly, and his vicegerency encompasses all names and affairs. He is both the teacher of the people of the earth: “And We have sent down to you the Reminder to make clear to the people what has been sent down to them” (16:44), and the teacher of the people of heaven: “O Ādam! Inform them of their names” (2:33). Indeed, even the glorification and sanctification of the angels were through the teaching of the vicegerent of God: “We glorified, so the angels glorified by Our glorification.”(137)

If the angels had been aware of this and not merely seen his earthly aspect, they would never have questioned his creation or spoken in that manner. This itself serves as evidence of the complexity of human creation on one hand and the limitation of the angels’ knowledge on the other.

The point is that neither a being that is only earthly can be the vicegerent of God, nor one whose domain of vicegerency is confined solely to the earth, nor a being that is only heavenly. Rather, the vicegerent of the Real is an all-comprehensive being (kawn jāmiʿ) who fully encompasses both heaven and earth, the kingdom and the dominion, and possesses all the treasuries of things and the keys to the unseen by God’s permission, though his elemental existence is tied to the earth. Therefore, the angels must prostrate before him in veneration, and ordinary human beings must also honor him.

It is important to mention that what has been said pertains to the highest level of vicegerency (khilāfa); that is, the perfect vicegerent and the manifestation of all the affairs of the one he represents (mustakhlaf ʿanhu). In this respect, it is characterized by unity, just as the one who is represented is one; meaning that the perfect vicegerent in every age is unique. If there are other vicegerents contemporary to him, they are under the absolute vicegerency of his guardianship.

Otherwise, vicegerency is a gradational reality that exists in different levels and instances. Its most perfect form is found in the First Emanation (ṣādir awwal) or the First Manifestation (ẓāhir awwal), while other worthy and righteous human beings possess the intermediate or lower stages of divine vicegerency. Since it is necessary to maintain the hierarchy of levels, it must be said that some are the vicegerents of God without intermediary, and some are vicegerents with intermediary. The one who is a vicegerent with intermediary is the vicegerent of the vicegerent of God, not the vicegerent of God Himself, except through the intermediary. However, from one perspective, everyone is like the links in a coherent and unique chain of divine vicegerency.

11) A Station Superior to the Station of Vicegerency

While divine vicegerency (khilāfah) represents the perfection of humanity, there exists a station superior to it—a station akin to the pinnacle of the pyramid of the living, gnostic man. This is the essence of man and the man of the Divine Eye (insān al-ʿayn), the manifestation of the Greatest Name. This station is characterized by immersion in pure tawḥīd (divine unity).

Three issues are addressed here: first, the essential difference between vicegerency and all-encompassing, comprehensive, and pure tawḥīd; second, the superiority of the station of absolute tawḥīd over the station of vicegerency; and third, a discussion of the various opinions presented in this context.

Regarding the first issue, the distinction between pure tawḥīd and vicegerency can be explained based on the second form of the four forms of logic. The pure monotheist severs all connections and relations other than with God, meaning they do not focus on their own essence or attributes, let alone concern themselves with the needs and responsibilities associated with addressing others’ needs. However, the vicegerent is commanded to consider others, their needs, how to fulfill them, and to bear the responsibility of those burdens. Therefore, the pure monotheist is not a vicegerent, and the vicegerent is not a pure monotheist.

In summary, the pure monotheist is immersed in witnessing pure unity, never looking at themselves, their belief in tawḥīd, or even their witnessing of divine unity. They certainly do not focus on others. In contrast, the vicegerent must see themselves, their vicegerency, their responsibilities, those over whom they are appointed, and the means to address their needs. Such witnessing of plurality is never compatible with complete immersion in God’s unity. One who is submerged in the sea of pure unity does not possess the capacity to witness plurality and does not maintain a pluralistic outlook.

Regarding the second point, which discusses the preference of complete tawḥīd (divine unity) over the station of khilāfa (vicegerency), it is said: The khalīfa (vicegerent) is compelled to affirm something that, in reality, lacks the capacity to be affirmed, whereas the pure muwaḥḥid (monotheist) is under no such obligation, being entirely immersed in the witnessing of the Absolute Affirmation.

Thus, the capacity of the station of tawḥīd is more comprehensive and perfect than that of khilāfa. A specific sign has been mentioned as an indication of complete tawḥīd. Some have taught this sign, explaining it through silence and holding one’s breath, emphasizing that in the face of pure tawḥīd, nothing remains but non-existence. Others have described the sign as follows: The one who has realized pure tawḥīd is unaware of anything other than the Absolute One God. Such a person neither wills nor exercises power over anything but God alone. The absence of knowledge, will, and power concerning anything other than the One, Unique God is the sign of a human being who has truly realized tawḥīd. This is because complete tawḥīd has rendered all of his cognitive and practical faculties inert, solid, and stagnant.(138)

Regarding the third point, which discusses the idea that the station of complete tawḥīd is superior to vicegerency: It is important to note that certain pluralistic spiritual visions, although not incompatible with the realization of tawḥīd, align with the monotheistic vision of divine signs. This perspective involves seeing things and persons as signs, which is associated with the fourth journey of the perfect human being, known as the noble summary (mukhtaṣar sharīf) and the all-encompassing existence (kawn jāmiʿ).

While it may be considered the ultimate perfection for an angel, who is solely a manifestation of God’s majesty and embodies the divine attributes of transcendence, to be immersed in tawḥīd and remain oblivious to anything other than God, this state may be considered among the exalted ones who are detached from and unaware of the creation of Ādam and the world. However, such a station does not represent the pinnacle of perfection in relation to the all-encompassing existence, who is God’s vicegerent and the manifestation of divine beauty, majesty, immanence, and transcendence. This station embodies the sign of the One represented by Him in “Nothing distracts Him from anything else, and no matter distracts Him from another matter,”(139) and it is not contrary to the realization of pure tawḥīd.

Just as God, the One represented, despite His complete vision of His infinite unity, maintains comprehensive oversight over all that is other than Him—such that not an atom in the heavens or the earth is absent or hidden from His boundless knowledge—His perfect vicegerent is likewise endowed with this quality. The requirement of perfect vicegerency entails two critical aspects:

First, the necessity for the vicegerent to attentively manage the affairs of those he represents, as mentioned in transmitted teachings. Second, and this is an essential point often overlooked in traditional discourse, is that such a vision of seeing signs is not in conflict with pure tawḥīd; just as God’s tawḥīd is more complete than any other form of tawḥīd.

His tawḥīd is His own, and the description of Him by any describer is boundless.(140) Yet, it is simultaneously accompanied by a vision of all that exists beyond Himself.

12) The blessings and bounties of being God’s vicegerent

The fact that God did not make any prior announcement to the angels about the creation of any other being, and did not consult with them—for example, He did not say: “I am creating the Throne or the heavens or the earth”—but only regarding the creation of the human being, of whom Ādam (a.s.) is the archetypal example, He said: “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a vicegerent” (2:30), is evidence that this creature possesses a special quality that other contingent beings do not possess. The use of the term “make” (jāʿil) instead of “create” (khalq) is not without subtlety, because the root “make” (when not meaning “to transform”) is often used for innovative matters and is more subtle than the root “create,” alluding to the innovation and artistry that the Originator of the heavens and the earth has employed in this being, which is different from the creation of other beings.

The use of the term “vicegerent” (khalīfa) instead of “human” (insān) may also be an allusion to the fact that the human being is not merely a terrestrial being composed of spirit and body. The issue at hand in his vicegerency is not only beyond the scope of the materialist thinkers, who consider every being to be material, but also beyond the scope of theistic thinkers, who consider the human being to be composed of a physical body and an immaterial spirit. The point is that just as the human being is not limited to the body and has a level higher than the body called the immaterial spirit, he is also not limited to these two levels. There exists a level higher than the immaterial spirit that resides in the divine repository, the Tablet, the Footstool, and the Throne, and is present in the station of divine proximity (ʿinda Allāh) and divine encounter (liqāʾ Allāh). In reality, beyond the “I” in the sense of the spirit that dominates the body, there is another “I” in the friend of God (walī Allāh) and the vicegerent of God (khalīfat Allāh), which dominates his spirit in the same way that the spirit dominates the body.

The vicegerent of God is present in all the worlds, from the material world to the paradise of divine encounter. On one hand, he says: I am the one who moves on the earth, eats, and sleeps, and on the other hand, he says: I am the one who understands and thinks. From a third perspective, he says: I would not worship a Lord I do not see;(141) and he also says: “So-and-so is more knowledgeable than I about the paths of the heavens than I am about the paths of the earth.”(142)

The “I” in I do not see and in so-and-so is that lofty and transcendent “I” discussed in wisdom and philosophy. It is the same reality that says: God has no sign greater than me,(143) and one end of it is connected to the earth, while the other end is connected to “Enter among My servants, And enter My paradise” (89:29-30). From one perspective, “he eats food and walks in the markets” (25:7), and from another perspective, “Then he drew near and descended, And was at a distance of two bow lengths or nearer” (53:8-9). From one aspect, he is a human created from clay: “Indeed, I am creating a human being from clay” (38:71) and is attributed to the earth. From another aspect, he is from the spirit of God and is attributed to the Lord: “So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My spirit...” (38:72).

He both enjoys the paradise of encounter and is present in the world of intellectual and imaginal abstraction, while also being present in the realm of the material world and nature. Through divine teaching and in the light of knowledge of the names of God, he is knowledgeable of all things, and through him and his manifestation, one can come to know the all-knowing God.

He is not only greater than the heavens, but also greater than every possible being, even the angels, the Tablet, and the Pen. He embodies both glorification and sanctification, as well as praise and magnification, meaning he possesses both the attributes of similarity and the attributes of transcendence. He is the scale of deeds in this world and the hereafter: “The scales of justice.”(144) Every deed that aligns with his actions is true, and every deed that contradicts his actions is false. As the first emanation and the first grace of God, he serves as the intermediary for the descent of divine blessings to the natural world. Even the apparent grace that reaches his elemental existence is mediated by his inner essence; it is this inner essence that manifests outwardly, allowing divine grace to flow through the angels to ordinary individuals, including his own elemental being. Thus, the angels do not hold a teaching position relative to his lofty station, which is the first determination. Rather, they are considered servants to the perfect human being in relation to this supreme and exalted stage. It is only in the descending stages of the perfect human being that the angels are considered channels and intermediaries of grace.(145)

The vicegerent of God is the governor responsible for ruling over the cosmic order within the realm of contingent existence. On this basis:

Firstly, he possesses knowledge of the details and characteristics of material things, actualizing their benefits and effects, and through this, he creates industries and invents tools. Therefore, it is possible that many arts and industries, like sciences and traditions, have come into existence through the hands of the prophets or with their guidance.

Secondly, he undertakes the existential guidance of all contingent beings—both material and immaterial—and guides all creatures by God’s permission. He is the manifestation of all the Most Beautiful Names and the attributes of God’s Beauty and Majesty. He is the Hand of God, the Eye of God, the Permission of God, and so on. The opening and closing of affairs, their management, and their arrangement are in his hands by God’s permission, without delegation. By his guidance, rain falls; by his restraint, the sky and celestial bodies do not strike the earth. Sorrow and grief are removed by his care, and problems and calamities are lifted by his kindness and attention: “Through you, God opens and through you, He seals; through you, He sends down the rain, and through you, He withholds the sky from falling upon the earth except by His permission; through you, He relieves sorrow and removes harm.”(146) Through him, the plants of the earth grow, and the trees bear fruit: “And through you, the earth grows its trees, and through you, the earth brings forth its fruits.”(147) Through him, God erases or affirms whatever He wills: “And through you, God erases what He wills, and through you, He affirms.”(148) In short, God’s will in all the decrees of all affairs descends to him, originates from him, and is issued from his houses: “The will of the Lord in the measures of His affairs descends to you and issues from your houses.”(149)

Thirdly, the legislative guidance of human beings, providing direction and advice, detailing and explaining the lawful and unlawful, enforcing divine punishments, safeguarding the fortresses of religion, and, in a word, establishing the just heavenly government, are also his responsibility.

For this reason, Salmān, about whom it has been said, “He is from us, the Ahl al-Bayt,”(150) and who has been nourished from the table and banquet of prophethood and Imāmate, explained the lofty station of vicegerency in its legislative guidance branch. This occurred in the mosque of the Prophet (s.a.w.), in a gathering that included ʿUmar, Kaʿb al-Aḥbār, Ṭalḥa, and Zubayr. In response to ʿUmar’s question about the difference between a vicegerent and a king, Salmān said:

“A vicegerent is someone who treats the subjects with justice, divides the wealth of the public treasury equally, is as compassionate and kind to the subjects as he is to his own family, judges based on the divine Book, and conveys God’s commands and prohibitions to God’s creation without addition or omission. And a king is more general than this.”

Kaʿb praised Salmān’s words, saying, “Salmān is filled with wisdom and knowledge.” Then ʿUmar asked, “O Salmān, am I a vicegerent or a king?” Salmān replied, “If in your entire life you have spent a dirham or less in a manner other than its proper place, you are a king, not a vicegerent.” Upon hearing this, ʿUmar was ashamed and wept.(151)

Although this story apparently relates to the vicegerency of the Prophet (s.a.w.), since the vicegerent of the Prophet is also the vicegerent of God (as indicated by the placement of the vicegerency of ʿAlī (a.s.) alongside the vicegerency of Ādam and Dāwūd in subsequent narrations), it is entirely appropriate for our discussion.

It is for this reason that in the view of Khiḍr, the Four Caliphs hold specific meanings and instances, where he addresses the Commander of the Faithful (a.s.) with the words:

“Peace be upon you, O fourth of the caliphs, and God’s mercy and blessings.”

In this context, Ādam, Aaron, Dāwūd, and Imām ʿAlī (a.s.) are recognized as the four caliphs mentioned in the Book of God, with each verse related to them being recited. The Commander of the Faithful (a.s.) narrated:

“While I was walking with the Prophet (s.a.w.) along one of the paths of Medina, we encountered a tall, elderly man with a thick beard and broad shoulders. He greeted the Prophet (s.a.w.) warmly and then turned to me, saying: ‘Peace be upon you, O fourth of the caliphs, and God’s mercy and blessings...’ The Prophet then said, ‘You are the fourth of the caliphs, as the old man greeted you. Do you know who he is?’ I replied, ‘No.’ The Prophet said, ‘That is your brother Khiḍr, so know.’”(152)

It is thus appropriate to conclude that the perfect vicegerent of God and the Messenger of God must be the manifestation of wonders (maẓhar al-ʿajāʾib) and marvels (maẓhar al-gharāʾib), encompassing the worlds of the physical and spiritual, gathering the realities of the high and the low, and being superior to all that is near and far. One who does not possess these qualities is not worthy of the vicegerency of God and the Messenger. Therefore, the appointment of the vicegerent and the prophet is made by God’s declaration. Concerning the vicegerency of man, He said: “Indeed, I will make...” Regarding Dāwūd, He said: “Indeed, We have made you a vicegerent...” (38:26). And concerning the Commander of the Faithful (a.s.), He stated: “Your guardian is none but...” (5:55) and “O Messenger, announce...” (5:67). Regarding the final perfect vicegerent, meaning the Master of the Age, He declared: “He will surely establish them in the earth...” (24:55). Similarly, each of the infallible Imāms (a.s.), by the declaration of the Messenger of God (s.a.w.), appointed each other to the vicegerency.(153)

13) The Wisdom of Appointing a Vicegerent

Why does God not directly undertake the development of the earth, the management of human beings, the perfection of souls, and other objectives, and instead appoints a vicegerent for Himself?

Some exegetes have responded to the above question by explaining that the reason for appointing a khalīfa and creating an intermediary is due to the deficiency of people and their limited capacity to fully receive God’s grace directly.(154)

Just as the intermediary and messenger being human and not an angel is also for this reason, if an angel were to become a prophet, it would still appear in human form: “And if We had made him an angel, We would have made him [appear as] a man” (6:9). This rational intermediation is akin to the sensory intermediation of cartilage between flesh and bone, as bone does not have the ability to directly absorb food.

It is based on this point that even the prophets differ in their reception of revelation. Because their capacities and talents vary, not all of them can speak to God without an intermediary at all times, like Mūsā (a.s.) at the appointed time and the Prophet Muḥammad (s.a.w.) during the ascension. Instead, some receive divine revelation and messages through dreams or inspiration, while others through the descent of an angel. Even Mūsā (a.s.) and the Noble Prophet of Islam (s.a.w.), in most or the majority of cases, receive revelation and divine messages through the descent of an angel.(155)

The appointment of a vicegerent is sometimes due to the shortcoming of the appointer and sometimes due to the shortcoming of the appointee. The first case is conceivable in a situation where the one being represented is unable to attend to his affairs due to absence, inability, or weakness. Such a situation is meaningless in relation to God, who is ever-present, encompasses everything,(156) and is a witness over all things,(157) and no weakness can be conceived regarding Him. Therefore, what is conceivable regarding vicegerency from God is the second case, meaning the shortcoming of the appointee. This is to say that, although the grace of God, the Glorified, is perpetual in relation to all existents, most of them, especially earthly beings, do not have the capacity to receive divine grace, rulings, sciences, and knowledge without intermediaries. Rather, they are in need of an intermediary who is familiar with their language and is tangible and perceptible to them.

14) The Inseparability of Divine Vicegerency from the Perfect Human Being

The robe of divine vicegerency, tailored so fittingly to the harmonious stature of the perfect human being—who is the microcosm of the created universe—remains with him at the apex of his humanity as the object of prostration for the angels, and does not separate from him even at the nadir of his descent to the earth. This is because divine vicegerency constitutes the very essence of the perfect human being’s identity. Something that is constitutive of human identity does not detach from him unless his identity itself is obliterated, which could only be conceivable through a substantial transformation beyond humanity towards a state resembling beasts, cattle, or demons. This applies to those who corrupt their nature, subdue their intellect, invert their heart, make their desires their commander, and their whims their object of worship. In such a case, it would be a matter of a negative proposition with the negation of the subject.

The partial vicegerency will also be stripped from such a crucified, infernal individual and is outside the scope of discussion.

When Ādam (the perfect human) was burdened with being the object of prostration and became aware of the summit of knowledge concerning God’s beautiful names, he reached the pinnacle of informing and teaching the angels. Yet, he had nothing of his own, for all his attributes of knowledge and action, from this perspective, were as God’s vicegerent. The vicegerent, insofar as he is a vicegerent, manifests nothing but the perfection and beauty of the one he represents.

When he was commanded to descend, drawing closer to the earth and becoming familiar with earthly beings, he displayed nothing other than the flexibility and immanence of God’s special grace. This is because God, while being exalted, remains near; and in His nearness, He retains His exaltedness: “In His exaltedness, He is near, and in His nearness, He is exalted.”(158) His presence at any level does not imply His absence from others, and His manifestation at any stage does not lead to His concealment in others. This may vary in terms of the observer or the insightful one, but His perfect vicegerent mirrors both the exaltedness and nearness of the divine names in the ascent of teaching the names and the prostration, as well as in the descent to the earthly realm.

Therefore, he is God’s vicegerent in the celestial sphere of abstraction and the supernatural, concerning the teaching of angels, and equally so in the realm of embodiment and nature, in teaching the Book and wisdom and purifying the souls of earthly beings. That supreme covenant of teaching the angels is continually manifested in the remembrance of the teacher and educator of the earthly community. Such a vicegerent is a sign of God, Whom “nothing preoccupies from anything else, nor any matter from another matter,”(159) and it is fitting for him to be the intermediary link between the unseen and the seen.

Therefore, Ādam (the perfect human) was never deprived of the mantle of vicegerency. Although he was stripped of some garments, he was not stripped of the garment of vicegerency; because nakedness and bareness are two aspects of a single graded reality. Just as he was God’s vicegerent when donning the garment of selection: “Then his Lord chose him” (20:122), his vicegerency remained intact even at the time of striking the staff of disobedience: “And Ādam disobeyed his Lord and went astray” (20:121).

The lapse that occurred due to his partaking of the forbidden tree did not cause a rupture in the sky of vicegerency. The one who became the manifestation of the divine names through the radiance of the knowledge of those names perceives God’s beauty in every majesty, finds His love in every severity, and attains an expansion in every contraction. Ultimately, in all circumstances, whether of attraction and repulsion, or ease and hardship, he remains God’s vicegerent. Nothing other than the effects of the One who is represented will appear in the vicegerent insofar as he is a vicegerent.

15) Divine Vicegerency and Satanic Vicegerency

Although human nature directs man towards divine vicegerency, his sensual and comfort-seeking nature shuns God’s vicegerency and inclines towards Satan’s vicegerency. If the guidance of intellect and revelation adorns him with truth, honesty, and goodness, he attains the station of divine vicegerency. However, if the whisperings and temptations of Iblīs pollute him with falsehood, lies, and ugliness, he becomes afflicted with the lowly position of Satan’s vicegerency.

The Noble Qur’an refers to these two groups as the Party of God (ḥizb Allāh) and the Party of Satan (ḥizb al-shayṭān).(160) Just as God’s vicegerent, under divine care, attains nearness through supererogatory acts, and God undertakes his faculties of perception and movement—manifesting in his sight so that he sees with divine vision...—similarly, Iblīs’ vicegerent, due to the dust of misguidance and the dark shadow of his whisperings, becomes so close to him that he assumes all his intellectual and practical manifestations.

An illustration of this false vicegerency and invalid representation can be found in the luminous words of one of the greatest divine vicegerents, namely the Commander of the Faithful, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.): “They took Satan as the sovereign of their affairs and he took them as his associates. So, he nested and laid eggs in their chests, and crept and crawled in their laps. He looked through their eyes and spoke with their tongues. He led them to slips and adorned errors for them. He acted through those whom Satan had made his partners in his dominion, and he uttered falsehood upon their tongues.”(161)

The essence of this statement by ʿAlī (a.s.) is that Iblīs finds his way into the sanctuary of the heart, establishes a nest there, engages in forbidden fornication, and the emergence of an egg from that fornication and its nurturing in the form of a chick in the bosom of the deceived hearts paves the way for Satanic stupefaction, enslavement, and despotism. This process continues to the extent that they become the channel for Satan’s seeing and speaking, and Iblīs carries out his deeds through the eyes and tongues of the arrogant.

This is the same as istināba, where one carries out his deeds through causation, such that sometimes Iblīs becomes the eyes, ears, and tongue of the wicked person so that he sees, hears, and speaks with Satanic tools. At times, the perceptual and motivational faculties of the sinner are placed at the disposal of Iblīs so that he may convey his false, deceptive, and ugly message to his audience through those means. In both cases, such a wicked person afflicted with falsehood, deception, and ugliness has been tainted by the vicegerency of Iblīs, and all his intellectual crimes and practical resolutions take shape according to the thought and motivation of the one he is representing, meaning Satan: “Everyone acts according to his own disposition” (17:84).

Just as divine vicegerency is the blessed tree (shajarat ṭūbā) that yields good fruit, Satanic vicegerency is the wicked tree that bears wicked fruit, for the wickedness of the fruit is the inevitable result of the wickedness of the tree, just as the goodness of the fruit is the definite yield of the purity of the tree.

When an impudent beggar spoke inappropriately to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.), he (a.s.) responded, saying: “Woe to you... Do not repeat such a thing. For it was Satan who blew upon your tongue.”(162) This means that the one who uttered this improper speech was Satan, but he spoke through your tongue. Such an act goes back to Satan’s deputyship and representation (istikhlāf and istināba); because sometimes deputyship and representation (niyāba and khilāfa) are such that Satan becomes the conduit for the evildoer’s act, and sometimes it is such that the evildoer becomes the conduit for what Iblīs wants, and the difference in expression does not interfere with the main point of the matter at hand. And if the Noble Qur’an has referred to some of the misguided and deviant ones as “the devils of mankind” (shayāṭīn al-ins),(163) it may be because the special connection between the deputy (khalīfa) and the one he is representing (mustakhlaf ʿanhu) ascribes him to the one he is representing. May God protect us from the evils of our souls and the misdeeds of our actions, and make the end of our affairs good in a way that pleases Him and pleases His deputies.

16) How to Become a Deputy of the Infallibles (a.s.)

The degrees of perfection and the stations of the perfect human being are not the same in terms of bestowal and acquisition because some of them are only attained through divine bestowal and can never be acquired through a person’s effort, such as legislative prophethood, messengership, and Imāmate, which, according to the noble verse “God knows best where to place His message” (6:124), attaining such a legislative station is not possible without God granting it to a person, and no one has the ability to acquire them through the pursuit of knowledge and self-purification. However, some of these stations, as well as being attained through divine bestowal, can also come about through a person’s own efforts. The strength and weakness of these types of acquired perfections are related to the quantity of righteous deeds performed and the quality of their sincerity, and the combination of outward goodness with inward goodness.

Deputyship (khilāfa) from the Infallibles (a.s.) and the manifestation of righteous individuals for the appearance of the perfections of these sacred persons is one example of perfections that can be acquired through a person’s own striving; that is, it is possible to become their deputy and representative, within one’s own capacity, by acquiring the divine knowledge that these sacred persons received from God, which they acted upon, taught, and propagated; by purifying one’s own theoretical intellect, refining one’s practical intellect, and engaging in selfless acts; and to spread the teachings and merits of those sacred persons under the shadow of the lesser, middle, and greater struggle (jihād), and in the light of the lesser, middle, and greater jurisprudence (fiqh) and independent reasoning (ijtihād), as their deputy and representative.

The initial paths and weak and short exercises of it begin with deputizing for those luminous beings in acts of worship and devotional deeds, provided that firstly, their validity; secondly, the acceptability of deputization; and thirdly, the validity of deputizing for the infallibles (a.s.) in them have been established, until gradually the attribute of vicegerency from them manifests, and the human being, free from desires and whims and enjoying their own knowledge and justice, finds themselves as a deputy of them. It is possible for the wayfarer eager for deputyship, in order to attain the lofty station of vicegerency from the infallible, to begin the path by dedicating the reward of deeds, not deputyship, and after some time transfer from dedicating the reward to deputyship and continue it as such.

An example of this practical exercise can be found in deputizing for an infallible (a.s.) in circumambulating the Kaʿba. ʿAlī ibn Mahzyār narrates from Mūsā ibn Qāsim that he said:

“I said to Imām Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Jawād (a.s.), the ninth Imām of the saved sect of the Imāmiyya: ‘I wanted to circumambulate on behalf of you and your father. I was told: Circumambulation is not done on behalf of the successors (awṣiyāʾ) [of the Prophet] (meaning one cannot circumambulate as a deputy of God’s successors).’ Imām al-Jawād (a.s.) said: ‘Yes, it is possible. Circumambulate on behalf of God’s successors as much as you can, for this is permissible.’ Then after three years had passed, I said to the Imām: ‘I sought your permission regarding circumambulating as a deputy for you and your father, and you gave me permission, and I circumambulated on behalf of you two as much as God willed. Then something occurred in my heart and I acted upon it.’”

Imām Jawād (a.s.) asked: “What was it?” I said: “One day I performed ṭawāf on behalf of the Messenger of God (s.a.w.).” Imām Jawād (a.s.) said three times: “May God’s blessings be upon the Messenger of God.” “Then, on the second day, I performed ṭawāf on behalf of the Commander of the Faithful (a.s.), then on the third day on behalf of Imām Ḥasan (a.s.), and on the fourth day on behalf of Imām Ḥusayn (a.s.). On the fifth day, I performed ṭawāf on behalf of Imām ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn (a.s.), on the sixth day on behalf of Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī (a.s.), on the seventh day on behalf of Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad (s.a.w.), on the eighth day on behalf of your father (your grandfather) Mūsā (a.s.), on the ninth day on behalf of your father ʿAlī (a.s.), and on the tenth day on behalf of you, O my master and my lord. These are the sacred beings to whose wilāya I adhere.”

Then Imām Jawād (a.s.) said: “At this moment, by God, you are adhering to the religion of God, which God does not accept from His servants except this religion.” I said: “Sometimes I would perform ṭawāf on behalf of your mother, Fāṭima Zahrāʾ (a.s.), and sometimes I would not.” Imām Jawād (a.s.) said: “Perform this practice frequently, for it is the best thing you do, God willing.”(164)

Deputizing on behalf of the infallible (a.s.) in circumambulation is also mentioned in other cases.(165) Deputizing on behalf of the infallible in Hajj, Umrah, and freeing a slave is also legitimate, like deputizing on his behalf in circumambulation, and is even desirable. It is narrated in the collections of narrations,(166) and there is no difference between a living infallible (a.s.) and a deceased infallible. The companions of those holy personages used to take the initiative in such acts of worship and were encouraged by them.

The point is that to attain the lofty status of vicegerency from the divine vicegerent, numerous exercises are necessary, starting from gifting rewards and voluntary deputyship, continuing to higher stages such as the obstacles of the forty-day retreat of sincerity and the like, until the ground is prepared for the manifestation of the grace of vicegerency and the emergence of the triumph of wilāya. Then the Originator, according to His wise will, favors whomever He wishes and makes him an infallible vicegerent.

17) The Role of Sages and Mystics in Explaining the Doctrines of Vicegerency

The Qur’anic stories of the prophets and friends of God, although they are personal, external, and historical events and in the context of their occurrence were no more than a single concrete being, are governed by a continuous and unchanging divine tradition (sunnat), making it possible for others throughout history to be included in the same divine tradition and modus operandi. Therefore, at the end of many stories of the prophets and saints, that long-standing divine tradition is pointed out, for example where it is said: “Thus do We reward the doers of good” (37:110).

The story of Ādam, apart from bearing similarities to the stories of other prophets, clearly indicates that God the Glorified is in the process of nurturing a vicegerent (khalīfa) and presented Ādam as an example. The process of the angels’ discourse, the teaching and informing of the names, the prostration of the angels, and the refusal of Iblīs, were pre-planned events that unfolded one after the other. This means that the story of Ādam was a completely personal, concrete, and external story—not symbolic—but served as an example of the divine vicegerent.

Perhaps their endeavor in expanding the scope of vicegerency, placing it within the orbit of humanity, and circumambulating it in the precincts of human perfection can be considered a form of ijtihād—deriving branches from their roots and extracting teachings from the principles laid out in the narrations that the Pure Progeny (a.s.) addressed in the form of text, principle, general, and comprehensive, and called upon their followers to deduce and derive from them.

Imām al-Ṣādiq (a.s.) said: “It is upon us to convey the principles to you, and it is upon you to derive the branches.”(167) And Imām al-Riḍā (a.s.) also said: “It is upon us to convey the roots, and it is upon you to derive the branches.” Ijtihād is like watering the good tree of the transmitted principle, the fresh fruits of which are the branches deduced from it.

An example narrated from the texts of the Ahl al-Bayt (a.s.) is that Ḥārith ibn ʿAbd Allāh Hamdānī (the ancestor of Shaykh Bahāʾī, may his soul be sanctified, according to some narrations) narrated from the Commander of the Faithful ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a.s.) that he (a.s.) said: “... I am the servant of God and the brother of the Messenger of God and the first one to confirm him. I confirmed him while Ādam (a.s.) was between spirit and body.”

“I confirmed him while Ādam was between spirit and body.”(168) The one who confirms the Prophet Muḥammad (s.a.w.) in prophethood and messengership before Ādam is the perfect human being who, before the realization of Ādam (a.s.), takes a position of confirmation and truthfulness before the more perfect than himself. This statement can be read as a decisive text and a foundational principle that undertakes the explanation of vicegerency within the orbit of humanity and places the recognition of the perfect human being at the center of its perspective and the core of its insight. By diving into the sea of the aforementioned text and others like it, precious gems can be unearthed, forming the branching of subsidiaries and their extraction from the root principles.

For instance, what has been said about the First Emanation (al-ṣadr al-awwal)—sometimes related to the primordial intellect, sometimes to the archetypal pen, and sometimes to the spirit of the perfect human being and the Muḥammadan reality—renders the connection of vicegerency with the intellect and the pen, and its superiority over other existents, evident. And for the spirit of the perfect human being, it will be shown that it also takes precedence over the angels, and what was found after the realization of the angels is the subtlety of that reality, not its root.

The purpose is that, just as the Qurʾanic and narrated matters related to jurisprudence (fiqh) and principles of jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh) flourished with the emergence of prominent figures in these fields, such as Shaykh Mufīd, Sayyid Murtaḍā, Shaykh Ṭūsī, Ibn Idrīs, and others, and gradually went through various stages of development and continue to do so, similarly, the teachings of the Two Weighty Things (thaqalayn) concerning our worldview, anthropology, knowledge of the vicegerent, and the like, have been fully explained and written about with the emergence of theistic sages, pious mystics, and other great figures in this field. These figures have traversed long paths and continue to do so in order to elucidate these higher realities.

The profound thinkers and Qurʾanic researchers, with the guidance of the instructive ḥadīth: “Read and ascend,”(169) after exhaustively studying the apparent meanings, which are authoritative, and preserving their conclusions and acting upon the rulings derived from them, move on to attain its higher levels. They provide reliable Qurʾanic support for the well-known ḥadīth: “I was a hidden treasure, and I loved to be known, so I created the creation in order to be known,”(170) which considers the purpose of creation to be the knowledge of God. They then explain the role of God’s vicegerent in achieving this lofty epistemic goal.

The general method of confirming the chain of narration for the mentioned ḥadīth is that God, in the verse: “It is God who has created seven heavens and of the earth, the like of them. [His] command descends among them so you may know that God is over all things competent and that God has encompassed all things in knowledge” (65:12), has declared the purpose of the creation of the cosmic system to be the human knowledge of the absolute power and absolute knowledge of God. It is evident that absolute knowledge and absolute power are attributes of the absolute essence, for a limited essence cannot possess unlimited attributes. If the essence were unlimited, there would be no room for another essence or a separate origin, as this would imply limitation, which is incompatible with divinity. Thus, the purpose of creation (which ensures the perfection of the creature, not the Creator) is the knowledge of God, the Glorified.

If there is any criticism regarding the chain of narration for that well-known sacred ḥadīth, by attributing its content to the Noble Qur’an, any objection will be resolved. After clarifying the purpose of creation, it becomes clear that the human being, who is the primary addressee of the call to know the absolute power and recognize the absolute knowledge, plays an essential role in realizing this supreme goal.

18) The Human-Centric Characteristic in the Virtuous City

Explaining the vicegerency (khilāfa) of man and recognizing his true identity as the vicegerent of God Almighty play a significant role in reconciling some of the conflicting views regarding the political system of the virtuous city and the human structure of a civilized government. Some consider God-centricity as the foundation of sound politics, while others advocate for human-centricity as its core.

Although proponents of the human-centric theory may not fully grasp the depth of their own words or recognize the catastrophe of non-monotheistic human-centricity, those who are aware of the monotheistic worldview and possess knowledge of the wise management and administration of the One and Only God understand that nothing other than divine vicegerency establishes and is involved in the identity of man, which is his very existence through God.

A being whose existence is established by the vicegerency of God Almighty must certainly take into account God’s decree and divine pleasure in the three aspects of being the source, the object, and the goal. That is, the vicegerent of God will never be the source of any scientific certainty or practical determination unless it is preceded by God’s legislative will and the decree issued by Him. He does not make decisions about any human being unless he views them from the perspective of God’s vicegerent, and he does nothing regarding an individual or society unless its purpose is to attract benefits and interests for mankind and to repel harms and corruptions from them.

With such an account, both the principle of God-centeredness, which is the only basis for perfection and the source of human beauty, is preserved, and the principle of human-centeredness is secured. This is because anthropology from the perspective of divine vicegerency will yield nothing but God-centeredness in all the aforementioned three dimensions. Human dignity is the result of his vicegerency, and the characteristic of the vicegerent is that all his intellectual and practical affairs are preceded by God’s decree and divine pleasure. As the Noble Qur’an states about the angels who are God’s honored servants: “They do not precede Him in speech, and they act by His command” (21:27).

Thus, human-centeredness in the virtuous city has no valid basis without God-centeredness; because man, without the aspect of his vicegerency from God, has no dignity, and without dignity, there is no reason for the necessity of him being the center. Rather, by considering the divine vicegerency, he is endowed with dignity and has the capacity to be the center. Therefore, honoring the vicegerent, venerating him, seeking his pleasure, and working towards securing his interests and benefits are all preceded by the permission and pleasure of the One who appointed him, i.e., God the Glorified. Vicegerency is like a transparent mirror, showing nothing but the One who appointed him. If it is stated in some religious texts that honoring the believer is venerating God and insulting the believer is insulting God,(171) it is because the God-fearing believer has been freed from the wink of instinct, organized by the symbol of purification, soared from simple desire, relied on simple reason, separated from the ill-tempered beauties of nature, and does not seek light from a dim lamp that is alive with a breath and dead with a breath. Such a believer is worthy of veneration. In the words of the poet and philosopher Sanāʾī:

“Religion emerges from sin by forbidding it

The secret will be revealed if you abandon it all

Reduce everything from yourself

Then safely speak of the story of Ādam(172)

Just as the wicked person does not have such a status:

As long as you have not been stung, you are not one who stings

As long as you have not been torn apart, you are not a beast of prey

If you restrain yourself, you will be stung

If you put your foot on your head, you will be torn apart(173)

On this path, which is the path of men

Whoever throws himself down is the man of it

Know that the one who has become nothing has become existent

And know that the one who saw himself is an idol-worshipper

The one unaware of that world and the drunk are one

The one who sees himself and the idol-worshipper are one.”(174)

19) Avoiding the Materialistic Perspective and Arrogant Questions

When Satan observed the creation of Ādam, his questioning revealed that he focused solely on the material origin of human creation, saying: “You created me from fire and created him from clay” (7:12). God responded by clarifying that, although the beginning of man is from mud and dust, man possesses an intermediate level and ultimately culminates in meeting God. He declared, “I appoint as My vicegerent one who has access to meeting Me,” not those who are “like cattle, rather they are more astray” (7:179), and with whom God is displeased: “That God and His Messenger disavow... Indeed God disavows the polytheists, as does His Messenger” (9:3).

In contrast, the angels looked beyond the natural and material aspects of man. They did not reduce him to mere mud and dust but considered some of his psychic faculties, such as lust and anger, and asked: “Will You place therein one who will cause corruption therein and...” God answered them by asserting that He sees and knows something in man that they are unaware of.

The manner of questioning by Satan and the angels is fundamentally different. Satan questioned with arrogance and objection, aiming to assert his own superiority, whereas the angels inquired out of a desire for knowledge and understanding. As the Commander of the Faithful ʿAlī (a.s.) said: “Ask in order to gain understanding, not to be obstinate.”(175) The angels asked to gain insight, and after understanding, they displayed humility and acknowledged their limitations. In contrast, Satan’s question stemmed from pride, and when the truth was revealed, he persisted in his stubbornness and only grew in arrogance.

To avoid following Satan’s method of questioning, one must ask with the intention of learning and acquiring knowledge, not out of pride or to belittle others. If one questions with arrogance, they follow the path of Satan and become one of the shayāṭīn al-ins (human devils), leading to the outcome: “He refused and was arrogant and became one of the disbelievers” (2:34). Conversely, a sincere question, asked for understanding, results in the angels’ response: “So the angels prostrated, all of them entirely” (15:30), leading to humility, modesty, and the expression of: “Exalted are You; we have no knowledge except what You have taught us. Indeed, it is You who is the Knowing, the Wise” (2:32).

20) The Permissibility of the Angels Asking Questions

The remembrance of God is considered an act of worship because it involves adhering to certain etiquettes with Him and seeking closeness to the divine presence. Remembrance has various degrees, and one of the highest is the remembrance through silence and attentiveness—a state enjoyed by those who have attained spiritual annihilation (fanā’) and are immersed in the ocean of effacement. At such a stage, if someone wishes to break this silence, remove the veil of attentiveness, open their mouth, and begin speaking, it is akin to abandoning the remembrance of God, even if the intention is to inquire about something. This is because seeking knowledge in the presence of the All-Knowing One, who is never hidden and is perpetually engaged in bestowing knowledge and imparting wisdom, is seen as improper. Therefore, the very act of the angels asking a question is itself questionable, let alone the content of their inquiry!

To clarify: the issue at hand is not why the angels asked about a particular matter or why they phrased their question in a certain way—where the focus of the discussion would be on the specifics of the question or its characteristics. Instead, the discussion centers on why the angels emerged from their state of silence and attentiveness, why they raised their heads from the protection of submission, the chamber of entrustment, and the depths of effacement and annihilation, to ask, “Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein... while we glorify Your praise...?” (2:30). Thus, it can be said that God’s speech to the angels served as a permission for them to speak, allowing them to transition from the remembrance of silence and attentiveness to the remembrance of speech and dialogue. In doing so, they proceeded to glorify Him and observed the other etiquettes of nearness and honor.

Remember:

a) Since the angels have varying degrees, if all of them participated in asking the question, it is possible that for some, the issue lay in the specifics of what was asked; for others, it was in the manner of asking; and for some, it was merely in the act of asking and thereby abandoning the remembrance of silence and attentiveness.

b) Some prophets sought refuge in God from the particularity of the matter or the specificity of the quality of the question, such as Prophet Noah (a.s.), who said: “My Lord! I seek refuge in You from asking You that of which I have no knowledge” (11:47).

c) Questions have different types, some of which are not applicable at all to God the Glorious, while others are applicable and permissible, but vary according to individuals, circumstances, and conditions. As for the type of question that is not applicable to God the Glorious, one example is asking about the efficient or final cause of that Most Holy Essence, because, based on “He is the First and the Last” (57:3), He is both the essential efficient cause and the essential final cause of all things. Therefore, He is exalted above having an agent or purpose, just as He is not subject to any governing or dominating principle to be questioned—meaning, He is not subject to questioning or objection. As for the type of question that is applicable to Him but varies according to different conditions and circumstances in relation to different individuals, it is the scientific question, inquiry, and seeking of understanding, which is permissible for those who are specially close to Him, engaged in the companionship of the remembrance of silence and attentive listening, and who are in the station of annihilation and absolute effacement. For others, it is permissible in the form of supplication or otherwise. With this explanation, the meaning of the verse “He is not questioned about what He does, but they will be questioned” (21:23) becomes clear.

21) God’s Knowledge and the Angels’ Ignorance

In the exegesis of the phrase “Indeed, I know that which you do not know,” it was mentioned that the angels had only seen the lower aspects of humanity and were aware of human desires and anger. This is why they asked their question, being unaware that humans also possess a perfect aspect: the aspect of knowledge and intellect. With this, they can prevent their own corruption and bloodshed, reach human perfection, and become perfect beings whose every action is by God’s permission, free from any corruption in their deeds. Rather, all their actions manifest divine care and wisdom; even their acts of bloodshed are considered striving in the way of God and become manifestations of God’s punishment: “And you threw not when you threw, but it was God who threw” (8:17). The angels were unaware of the reality that each of them has a limited rank which they cannot surpass: “And there is none among us except that he has a known position” (37:164).

On the other hand, the perfect human, connected to the realm of movement, can grow with faith and righteous deeds, never stopping at any stage but constantly being on the path. Even after reaching lofty stations such as tranquility of the soul (iṭmiʾnān al-nafs), contentment with God’s decree (riḍā bi-qaḍāʾ Allāh), and having a religion that is pleasing to God (dīn marḍī Allāh), they are still commanded to continue their journey and return until they reach the presence of “with God” (ʿinda Allāh) and become “with God” in a way that there is no separation between them and their Beloved: “O reassured soul, return to your Lord, well-pleased and pleasing [to Him]” (89:27-28).

They were unaware of the reality that the perfect human is the greatest sign of God, His most complete manifestation, and the one who is informed of all the realities of existence through divine teaching. By God’s permission, the perfect human influences all the universes and has knowledge of all that has reached the realm of possibility and the stage of manifestation and determination.

The angels were unaware of the truth that, by God’s permission, the keys to the unseen are in the hands of the perfect human being, who is the key-holder of the unseen world. This does not imply that God, the Glorious, has delegated the keys of the unseen to him, as delegation and entrustment are neither compatible with the absolute essence of the infinite God nor with the essential neediness of the perfect human being, who is contingent in existence. Rather, it means that the complete manifestation of God resides in the perfect human being.

Thus, he is above the keys of the unseen, the treasures of the unseen, and the first emanation, grace, and manifestation. Otherwise, if the keys of the unseen were superior to the perfect human being, it would imply, firstly, that the path of the perfect human being in the arc of ascent would not lead to “and to your Lord is the ultimate end” (53:42) and the paradise of meeting, and secondly, he would not be the first emanation, grace, and manifestation.

The angels were also unaware that the hearts of perfect human beings are the vessels of God’s will: “Rather, our hearts are vessels for the will of God,”(176) as mentioned in the verse “and you do not will except that God wills” (81:29). If God, the Glorious, wills to desire something, since such a will is an attribute of action and is contingent in existence, it manifests in a contingent locus, which is the heart of the walī Allāh (friend of God) and the perfect human being: “The will of the Lord in the measures of His affairs descends upon you and emerges from your homes.”(177)

22) Knowledge of the Self in the Verse Under Discussion

Some of the great scholars of wisdom and exegesis consider the verse under discussion to be a reference to the knowledge of the self, an explanation of its essence, identity, and the manner of its growth from the earth, along with the secret of its vicegerency. This is because knowledge of the self is the mother of virtues and the foundation of all knowledge, as stated in the divine revelation: “Know yourself, O human, and you will know your Lord.” The Prophet (s.a.w.) also said: “The one among you who knows himself best is the one who knows his Lord best.” Similarly, some early scholars and ancients have remarked: “Whoever knows his self, knows his God.”(178)

23) The Explainer of the Verse of Vicegerency

As mentioned in the introduction to this exegesis,(179) sometimes a verse, such as the one where “your Lord said to the angels, ‘Indeed, I will make upon the earth a vicegerent...’”, is revealed as a foundational line of teaching and moral purification, with its explicit content not repeated in any other verse. However, the message and comprehensive guidance of most, if not all, verses of the Noble Qur’an are focused on outlining, depicting, clarifying, elaborating, deepening, and realizing the content of this foundational verse.

This verse specifically references the lofty station of divine vicegerency, yet no other verse has been revealed to provide a detailed explanation of this exalted status, despite the necessity for extensive elaboration. Nonetheless, the overarching message and eloquent guidance of most or all verses revolve around teaching the beautiful names of God and the purification of souls and spirits, aiming to attain the lofty station of divine vicegerency.

Therefore, if someone claims that the ultimate goal of the Qur’an is to nurture the perfect human being, they would not be incorrect. However, this type of exegesis, which is not typically included among the common and prevalent types of Qur’anic interpretation, is based on the Qur’an itself.